Thin strata of blacks - professionals, entrepreneurs, preachers and civil rights leaders - were small winners who also had slices of the pie. There are winners and losers, however, and the big winners were whites who controlled the land and real estate in Miami and Southeast Florida. Connolly's "A World More Concrete" except, perhaps, the long-suffering black masses. There are no heroes in Johns Hopkins Professor N.D.B. The federal, state and local statutes that followed made Miami as racially segregated as Birmingham, and the intermittent application of police or white vigilante violence cemented the edifice of Jim Crow in both cities. Ferguson that separation of black and white Americans was constitutional provided that there were equal accommodations for each race. It was mere coincidence that Miami was incorporated in 1896, the year that the Supreme Court ruled in Plessy vs.
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